英語修辭與寫作·2.2　關(guān)于修辭學(xué)傳統(tǒng)

2.2A　傳統(tǒng)修辭學(xué)的兩項(xiàng)基本內(nèi)容

1） Patricia Bizzell和Bruce Herzberg在他們合編的《修辭學(xué)傳統(tǒng)》（The Rhetorical Tradition）中指出，傳統(tǒng)修辭學(xué)包含兩大部分：一為“非藝術(shù)”性（Inartistic proofs），二為“藝術(shù)”性（Artistic proofs）。

2） 所謂“非藝術(shù)”性，并不是否認(rèn)語言藝術(shù)，而是強(qiáng)調(diào)這一方面的修辭技巧直接表現(xiàn)在結(jié)構(gòu)形式上，例如通過對比結(jié)構(gòu)達(dá)到突出某事物或其某項(xiàng)特征的目的。“非藝術(shù)”性有三項(xiàng)主要內(nèi)容，包括事實(shí)（Facts）、實(shí)例（Examples）和證詞（Testimony）。（參見黃任2012:13.1）

3） “藝術(shù)”性主要?dú)w結(jié)為邏輯（Logos）、情感（Ethos）和人格（Pathos），其中“邏輯”用于突出所述論點(diǎn)的合理性；“情感”指如何根據(jù)不同對象調(diào)動他們的感情，使他們在情緒上傾向于接受所述的論點(diǎn)；而“人格”則是通過說話人或?qū)懽魅说淖晕冶戆资孤牨娀蜃x者產(chǎn)生一種信任感，并由于信任而較容易地接受他們的論點(diǎn)。用18世紀(jì)蘇格蘭修辭學(xué)家George Campbell的話說，就是“促進(jìn)理解，引起想象，調(diào)動感情，或者說影響人們的意志”（to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passion, or to influence the will）。

2.2B　寫作中的三要素

1）在Dorothy Margaret Guinn和Daniel Marder合著的《修辭學(xué)要略》中作者概述了英語寫作中的“事實(shí)、道理和感情”（fact, reason and feeling）等三個要素，它們同上面講到的修辭學(xué)傳統(tǒng)中藝術(shù)性的三個方面相呼應(yīng)，存在于任何一個寫作篇章之中。例如，一篇科技論文必須以實(shí)際的調(diào)查、實(shí)驗(yàn)與數(shù)據(jù)為基礎(chǔ)，同時一定要有正確的推理，也會帶著作者的感情色彩；相比之下，在寫給親人或好友的信中，無疑感情的分量更重，但也需建立在道理與事實(shí)的基礎(chǔ)之上。

2）然而在實(shí)際生活中，這三者之間的關(guān)系往往得不到恰當(dāng)處理，有時甚至被人為扭曲。例如，在新聞報道中，不同記者根據(jù)公認(rèn)的要素去寫，應(yīng)該基本上一致，但實(shí)際上往往大相徑庭，甚至連基本事實(shí)也完全相反。之所以如此，主要有幾個方面的原因：

一是由于寫作者的經(jīng)歷不同，了解的情況不一樣，因而得出不同的結(jié)論；

二是由于寫作者的立場和思想觀念不同，對同樣的情況做出了不同的解釋，并得出不同的結(jié)論；

三是由于受到政府和主管部門的規(guī)定和態(tài)度的影響或限制，寫作者不得不說違心話。一些西方記者標(biāo)榜他們的“新聞自由”，實(shí)際上只不過是宣傳而已。例如在“9·11”事件后在報道中批評了時任總統(tǒng)布什的專欄作家湯姆·卡廷和記者丹尼斯·馬克先后丟了飯碗的事實(shí)，說明那里并沒有真正的“新聞自由”。

2.2C　修辭學(xué)傳統(tǒng)的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義

1） 美國一些大學(xué)里使用了兩部觀點(diǎn)截然相反的修辭學(xué)著作：一是Edward P. J. Corbett的《為現(xiàn)代學(xué)生講古典修辭學(xué)》（Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Students），二是C. H. Knoblauch和Lil Brannon合著的《修辭傳統(tǒng)和寫作教學(xué)》（Rhetorical Traditions and the Teaching of Writing）。這兩部書分別被一些大學(xué)用作英語修辭學(xué)教材。

2） C. H. Knoblauch和Lil Brannon在《修辭傳統(tǒng)和寫作教學(xué)》中高舉“現(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)”（Modern Rhetoric）的大旗，認(rèn)為不論從思維活動、話語進(jìn)程或知識的本質(zhì)上看，現(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)均占有絕對優(yōu)勢，它能夠在理論上把形式和內(nèi)容更好地結(jié)合起來。他們指出，現(xiàn)代修辭學(xué)注重寫作內(nèi)容，不用傳統(tǒng)的寫作套路束縛學(xué)生的思想，鼓勵學(xué)生創(chuàng)造性地自由表達(dá)，提倡教師與學(xué)生并肩坐在一起平等討論，等等。筆者認(rèn)為，這些都有道理，也確有新意，但這部著作的問題是把傳統(tǒng)修辭與現(xiàn)代修辭完全對立起來了，認(rèn)為古典修辭學(xué)的觀點(diǎn)都是“虛假”的，“具有欺騙性”的，有關(guān)修辭與寫作的教科書只能起到“束縛學(xué)生思想”的作用，甚至認(rèn)為教師站在講臺上講課也沒有必要。這種全盤否定傳統(tǒng)、全盤否定別人和“唯我正確”的態(tài)度是不可取的。

3） 相反，Corbett在其著述的前言中明確指出：“古典修辭學(xué)的某些原則和實(shí)踐在我們今天的社會生活中仍然在起作用。”

作者扼要介紹了修辭藝術(shù)的3個要素：

從理性角度看，說話人或?qū)懽魅艘朴谕ㄟ^邏輯推理引導(dǎo)聽眾或讀者理解自己的觀點(diǎn)，并舉例說明兩種基本的推理形式：演繹法（Deduction）和歸納法（Induction）。今天我們?nèi)羯朴谶\(yùn)用唯物辯證法去闡明道理，當(dāng)會更有效果。

就感情而言，說話人或?qū)懽魅艘芯柯牨娀蜃x者的心理，善于從感情上打動他們。亞里士多德在《修辭》第二卷中用主要篇幅分析了人們的幾種常見感情，并研究怎樣去影響人們的感情，這就是人類心理學(xué)研究的開端。

人格的力量來自說話人/寫作人的本身。例如一位演說者一開頭就能給聽眾一種良好的印象，其演說就往往成功。我們今天常?？吹?，主要演說者開始時通常有一種自我介紹式的開場白，甚至?xí)h主持人事先就要介紹一通。同樣，出版物的開頭常有知名人士寫的“序”，這也是提高該著述“人格”力度的一種方式，同時一篇好的序言又有助于指導(dǎo)讀者有效地閱讀。

此外，作者還系統(tǒng)地介紹了各種修辭技巧，并在書的開頭就通過一篇廣告分析了一些修辭手法怎樣在今天的實(shí)際生活中仍然具有使用價值。

4） 由Thomas S. Kane教授撰寫的The Oxford Guide to Writing: A Rhetoric and Handbook for College Students為我們進(jìn)行英語修辭與寫作教學(xué)提供了示范。該書共分9個部分，計(jì)54章，還有若干附錄和一份使用手冊，從分析人們有關(guān)寫作的幾種看法開始，系統(tǒng)介紹了寫作過程、文章結(jié)構(gòu)、段落類型、句式、詞語選用與辭格、語法及標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號等，內(nèi)容全面。在書的開頭“To the Student”和“To the Teacher”中，作者針對一些人提出的“寫作可學(xué)而不可教”的觀點(diǎn)，一方面強(qiáng)調(diào)寫作是以語言為工具的復(fù)雜腦力勞動過程，不像結(jié)毛線或騎自行車那樣容易教和容易學(xué)；另一方面，又肯定了寫作課、指導(dǎo)教師和教科書等的價值，它們對學(xué)習(xí)寫作具有幫助和指導(dǎo)作用。關(guān)于寫作中的一些規(guī)則，也可叫做人們長期以來形成的“慣例”，包括標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號的用法，既不應(yīng)孤立地去死扣，又不可漠然置之，因?yàn)楹玫奈恼伦髡呷匀蛔裱鼈?。對于學(xué)習(xí)寫作者來說，要大膽開拓思路，做到筆下言之有物，同時應(yīng)有步驟地在詞語選擇、句式變化、段落展開和文章結(jié)構(gòu)上下功夫，不斷提高修辭與寫作技巧，提高交際的有效性。

練習(xí)二?。‥xercise Two）

I. Preview Questions:

1. Do you agree with the point that rhetoric is associated with the whole process from choice of words and sentence patterns, use of figures of speech to the organization of paragraphs and the whole piece of writing?

2. If you find that your teacher has written in your composition something like “arch（aic）” or “approp（riateness）”, do you know what you should do?

3. “Formal”, “informal” and “slang” are different register labels, aren't they?

4. In which chapters are figures of speech discussed in this book?

5. Have you read Aesop's Fables? Why is it said the book is a book of figures of speech?

6. Do the three devices of “unity”, “coherence” and “emphasis” apply to paragraphs and whole pieces of writing as well?

7. Can you tell the four basic models of writing?

8. What three aspects does the concept of “artistic proofs” and “inartistic proofs” respectively refer to?

9. What do you think of the “modern rhetoric” put forward by C. H.Knoblauch and Lil Brannon?

10. Do you agree with the idea “writing is something to learn but not to be taught”?

II. Read the following paragraphs and then decide whether the statements are true （T） or false （F）:

Whenever language is simple, plain, direct, whenever it employs words to mean what they conventionally mean, we say that it is literal. Literal comes from the Latin litera, “letter”; what is literal is according to the letter. Literal meanings are those recorded in a dictionary. Consider, for example, this literal statement:“A writer's style should be purposive, not merely decorative.” The words are direct and straightforward: they mean exactly what they say.

Figuratively, on the other hand, the same idea has been expressed like this: “Style is the feather in the arrow, not the feather in the cap.” Figurative indicates that the meaning of a word is stretched to accommodate a larger or even a very different sense than it usually carries. The writer can make the stretch because of some likeness（or other relationship） between two different things that the context makes apparent. Thus the literal meaning of “feather in the arrow” is the stabilizer that keeps the arrow on target; the figurative meaning is that style makes communication fly to the target and hit it.

A writer's task is to provide clues so that attentive readers will understand the special sense carried by a figurative word. In speech we signal such meanings by gestures, facial expressions, pronunciation, or tone of voice （think of the intonation we give to the word generous in order to twist its sense to “stingy” when we say sarcastically of a cheap acquaintance, “He's a generous guy!”）. In writing, it is primarily the context the other words in the sentence, paragraph, or even the total composition that controls a figurative word, pointing its meaning in a special direction.

The effective use of figurative language depends upon total diction, upon all of the words you choose. You cannot improve a composition by sticking in occasional similes and metaphors. You must weave them into the fabric of your composition.

When woven in, figurative language adds enormously to the richness of prose. Consider once again the comparison of style to the feathers on an arrow. For one thing, the figure clarifies a relatively unfamiliar and abstract idea （style） by expressing it in a striking image that readers can visualize and understand. For another, it emphasizes and enlarges the idea of style, giving it the functions we associate with the feather in an arrow （providing stability and guidance, directing the shaft swiftly and surely to its target）, and denying it the qualities we associate with a feather in a cap （pretentious, pointless decoration, an expression of vanity）. For a third, it implies a personal judgment which influences our feelings about the subject: we approve of style in the functional, directive sense and disapprove of it in the self-glorifying sense. Finally, the figure entertains. We take pleasure in the cleverness and succinctness with which a complicated idea is expressed in the images of the two feathers.

Thus figures clarify, they expand, they express feelings and judgments, and they are a source of delight. Among all the common figures of speech, the most frequent and most useful are similes and metaphors. Similes first.

Statements:

1. The most frequent and most useful figures of speech are similes and metaphors, the former in particular.

2. Appropriate use of figurative language can add enormously to the richness of a prose, which is demonstrated by four aspects in the 5th paragraph.

3. The saying “Style is the feather in the arrow” means that style plays an important role in making communication effective.

4. The word “context” in writing refers to the other words in the sentence, paragraph, or even the total composition, which signals the special sense carried by a figurative word.

5. If one weaves figures of speech into the fabric of his / her writing, he / she will fail to use the language effectively.

6. “Literal” comes from the Latin litera, which means that the words are direct and straightforward and that they mean exactly what they say.

III. Fill in each blank with the appropriate form of the word given in brackets.

Today, more than 2000 years after the emergence of rhetoric and rhetorical （1）____________（think）, scholars are still grappling with the intricate issues of its definition. Since rhetorical inquiry concerns human agents, symbol communication systems, and audiences, there are overlaps with （2）____________（relate） scholarly disciplines, such as linguistic pragmatics, argumentation theory, anthropology, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics, to name but a few.

It seems justifiable to agree with Scott （1972） that “any definition of rhetoric that is （3）____________（take） as once-and-for-all is apt to be gravely （4）____________（mislead）,” since any definition will only partly cover its wide range of uses. He suggests that any definition of “rhetoric” will be, itself, a rhetorical use of language.

Although rhetoric in Greece and Rome was primarily （5）____________（teach） as an art of persuasive speaking or writing, it was widely recognized that rhetorical techniques were also employed in imaginative compositions not explicitly intended to persuade an audience to adopt some action or belief, but （6）____________（aim） at an aesthetic effect, to give enjoyment to an audience or to demonstrate the imaginative and linguistic skills of the speaker or writer. Accordingly, the definition of rhetoric as the “art of persuasion” might easily be extended to the “art of effective expression”.

（Excerpts from Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 2nd ed.）

參考答案
Ⅱ. 1. T　2. F　3. T　4. T　5. F　6. T
Ⅲ. 1. thinking　2. related　3. taken　4. misleading　5. taught　6. aimed